Placentia
AD 69 (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Civil Wars) – The
power struggle between Marcus Salvius Otho, the former governor of Lusitania,
and Aulus Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior (Lower Germany), was the
latest chapter in the Roman civil war which followed the death of the
Julio-Claudian Emperor Nero in the summer of AD 68. The assassination of his
immediate successor, Galba, the following January signalled the beginning of a
months-long internecine struggle between these two men. The contest between
Otho and Vitellius was decided in the Padus (Po) Valley in northern Italy. The first
significant clash came at Placentia (Piacenza). Here, the legions of Vitellius’
lieutenant, Caecina, besieged the city in an attempt to force the capitulation
of the resident Othonian forces led by Vestricius Spurinna. Once his army was
across the Padus River, Caecina’s legions attacked the community, but were unsuccessful
in breaching its walls and suffered heavy losses by the end of the day’s
action. His army resumed the investment the next morning, this time with the
aid of siege-works – fascines, manlets and sheds to mine the walls – but still
failed to make progress against the defenders. Unable to overcome the city’s
defences by storm, Caecina ultimately abandoned the assault, re-crossed the
river and marched against Cremona some 20 miles (32km) away.
Locus Castorum
AD 69 (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Civil Wars) – The
death of Roman Emperor Nero in the summer of AD 68 proved the catalyst for a
violent power struggle in the Empire that eventually pitted various Roman
legions against one another in open civil war. Following the demise of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty, Servius Sulpicius Galba briefly served as emperor from
June of AD 68 until the following January, before his assassination again
plunged the Empire into chaos. Two other contenders now openly sought the
emperorship: Marcus Salvius Otho, the former governor of Lusitania, and Aulus
Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior (Lower Germany). The contest between
these two pretenders was ultimately decided in the Po Valley of northern Italy.
The first clash occurred at Locus Castorum, a location some 12 miles (19.3km)
from the town of Cremona. Vitellian forces encountered an Othonian army led by
the general Suetonius Paulinus. With the approach of Otho’s troops, the legatus
Aulus Caecina Alienus prepared an ambuscade for the enemy. Deploying auxiliary
troops in some woods near the road, he sent his cavalry with instructions to
provoke an engagement and then feign retreat in order to draw the Othonians
into the trap. The opposing generals soon learned of the intended ambush and
approached the location with caution, though still intent on pursuing battle.
Paulinus immediately assumed command of the infantry, while Marius Celsus led
the cavalry. Before reaching the location of Caecina, Otho’s commanders
assembled their army into battle formation. On the left flank, they positioned
a vexillation of the Legio XIII Gemina, four cohorts of auxiliary infantry and
500 auxiliary cavalry. Opposite these troops, on the right flank, were arrayed
the Legio I Adiutrix, a pair of auxiliary infantry cohorts and 500 horse. In
the centre, spanning the road, were three praetorian cohorts. To the rear,
Paulinus stationed a reserve of 1,000 Praetorian and auxiliary cavalry. As the
Othonians advanced, a portion of the Vitellian line broke and fled. Celsus
suspected a trick, and in turn initiated a feigned withdrawal which lured some
of the enemy from cover. Caecina’s troops gave chase and quickly found
themselves constrained by legionary cohorts to their front and auxiliary
infantry on the flanks. Before they could properly react, the prompt arrival of
Celsus’ cavalry closed any avenue of retreat toward Cremona. While the two
sides faced one another, Paulinus paused long enough to redress his line and
formulate a plan of attack. The delay offered Caecina’s men opportunity to seek
the relative safety of nearby vineyards and a small grove of woods. When the
Othonian army was properly arrayed, Paulinus ordered his battle line to charge.
The attack proved irresistible. Even with the piecemeal arrival of
reinforcements, the auxiliary cohorts of Caecina were flushed from the tangle
of vines and tree cover and completely routed. The defeated remnants of the
army thereafter retreated to Cremona.
Forum Julii
AD 69 (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Civil Wars) – During
the Roman civil war between Emperor Otho and Aulus Vitellius, governor of
Germania Inferior (Lower Germany), envoys from Gallia Narbonensis appealed to
the Vitellian general, Fabius Valens, for protection in the province from a
marauding Othonian fleet. In response, he dispatched a force of auxilia, both
infantry and cavalry, to secure the region, which had earlier declared its
allegiance for Vitellius. A portion of these troops bivouacked at the port of
Forum Julii (Frejus) to help secure the unprotected coast from indiscriminate raiding
by the enemy. Upon the approach of an Othonian army, the Vitellians prepared
for battle. They deployed twelve turmae of cavalry, including Trevirian
horsemen, and a select detachment of infantry. These were reinforced by local
auxiliaries, 500 Pannonian recruits not yet formally enrolled into service and
one Ligurian cohort. Once the two armies began assembling for battle, the
Vitellians, who were strongest in cavalry, formed two lines; the mounted
squadrons in front, followed by the infantry in close ranks. The Ligurian
auxiliaries were located on adjacent high ground. Opposing the Vitellians was a
numerically superior army that included several cohorts of Praetorian infantry
and a mixed contingent of marines and local militia. These were deployed over a
level area extending inland from the coast. Nearby, the Othonian fleet was
anchored close to shore, its ships facing the battlefield in order to better
provide support for the army. The Trevirian cavalry opened the contest with an
imprudent charge against the Praetorians, which not only failed to disrupt the
formation of veteran infantry, but needlessly exposed their flank to the fire
of slingers. While both armies were fully engaged in the struggle, the Othonian
fleet attacked the enemy’s rear. The action trapped the Vitellians, who were
only able to avoid complete destruction with the onset of nightfall. The
Othonians returned to camp following this victory, unaware that the enemy,
though defeated, was prepared to regroup for a second battle. After receiving
fresh reinforcements, including two cohorts of Tungarian auxilia, the
Vitellians launched a surprise assault that penetrated their opponents’
encampment and forced the Othonians to abandon their defences and rally on a
nearby hill. The resulting struggle was long and stubbornly contested, and both
sides accrued heavy casualties. The battle finally ended when intense missile fire
overwhelmed the determined resistance of the Tungrian infantry and put the
Vitellians to flight once again. An effort by the Othonians to underscore their
victory with a vigorous chase was abruptly stopped when the enemy horse wheeled
around and briefly surrounded their pursuers. Both armies thereafter withdrew,
the Vitellians to nearby Antipolis (Antibes) and the emperor’s forces further
up the coast to Albingaunum (Albenga) in Liguria.
Cremona
AD 69, 14 April (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Civil
Wars) – The death of Emperor Nero in early June of AD 68 resulted in open civil
war throughout the Roman Empire. Following the assassination of the hastily
chosen Emperor Galba, the armies of his successor, Marcus Salvius Otho, clashed
with those of Aulus Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior (Lower Germany),
near the northern Italian communities of Cremona and Bedriacum (Calvatone). In
a preliminary contest outside the village of Locus Castorum, an Othonian army
led by the general Suetonius Paulinus defeated an inferior rival force
commanded by Aulus Caecina Alienus. The defeated Vitellian troops fled to
Cremona, where they were soon joined by an army under Fabius Valens. As the two
sides prepared for the coming engagement, Otho’s principal commander – his
brother, Titianus, and the prefectus, Proculus – rejected the counsel of
Paulinus and the legatus Marius Celsus to await reinforcements and instead
elected to immediately force a major action outside of Cremona. The emperor
withdrew to the safety of Brixellum (Brescello), accompanied by a strong force
of his bodyguards, cavalry and Praetorian Guardsmen. The two armies arrayed for
battle near Cremona. The forces of Vitellius possessed the advantage of both
strength and numbers, and their greater morale permitted the legions to quickly
form into orderly ranks, while confusion slowed the development of the Othonian
line. The fighting concentrated along the raised causeway of the Via Postumia,
a road situated on the left bank of the Padus (Po) River. In an open plain
bounded by the river and road, intense fighting erupted between Vitellius’
veteran Legio XXI Rapax from Germania Superior (Upper Germany) and the less
experienced Legio I Adiutrix. The First Legion, consisting of marines levied
from the fleet at Ravenna, inflicted heavy casualties on the leading ranks of
the Twenty-first and temporarily captured its eagle before a ferocious
counter-attack drove back the Legio I with heavy losses, including its legate,
Orfidius Benignus. At the same time, Vitellius’ Legio V Alaudae from Germania
Inferior (Lower Germany) routed the Legio XIII Gemina based in Pannonia. On
another part of the battlefield, the Vitellians attacked Otho’s XIV Gemina
after successfully isolating the legion with superior forces. The general
struggle remained undecided for some time until Caecina and Valens reinforced
their legions by the application of reserves. The Vitellian effort was further
strengthened with the arrival of Batavian auxilia under Varus Alfenus. Fresh
from their victory over Othonian forces at the Padus, the Batavians immediately
launched a concentrated assault against the enemy’s flank. This attack,
together with continued pressure brought against the opposing ranks by the
Vitellian legions, caused Otho’s centre to collapse. The loss of this central
formation triggered a total rout. Both victors and vanquished were temporarily
slowed by the carnage on the Via Postumia as each departed the field in the
direction of Bedriacum, approximately 15 miles (24km) away. As the army of
Vitellius reached the town’s fifth milestone, Caecina and Valens ended the
pursuit. Total Roman dead amounted to over 40,000.
Bedriacum
AD 69, 24 October (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Civil
Wars) – The Roman civil war that followed the Emperor Nero’s death in early
summer of AD 68 resulted in the rapid manifestation of four claim- ants to the
imperial purple by the spring of the following year. The power struggle
eventually led to the assassination of Emperor Galba in January AD 69 after
only seven months in power; the suicide of his successor Otho following his
army’s defeat at Cremona in April; and the emergence of a violent contest
between Aulus Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior (Lower Germany), and
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, the general appointed by Nero to crush an ongoing
revolt in Judaea. Near the town of Bedriacum (Calvatone) in northern Italy,
legions loyal to Vitellius and Vespasian joined in a violent battle to
determine the future of the Empire. Following a sharp but largely inconclusive
engagement on the first day, both armies prepared for a major battle that
night. Shortly after dusk, the Flavian commander Marcus Antonius Primus drew up
his army across the Via Postumia, an elevated roadway which extended between
the towns of Cremona and Bedriacum, and generally followed the left bank of the
Padus (Po) River. He positioned the Legio XIII Gemina on the causeway, and on
the left flank in an open plain he deployed the Legio VII Galbiana and the
Legio VII Claudia. To the right, Antonius stationed the Legio VIII Augusta on a
secondary road. It was joined by the Legio III Gallica, which found itself
hampered on the far right by its placement among dense thickets. A detachment
of praetorians was then drawn up next to the Third Legion and auxiliary cohorts
were posted on each wing. The Flavian cavalry, numbering some 4,000, secured
the flanks and rear of the entire formation. Lastly, ahead of the legions
ranged a select force of Suebian tribesmen.
Opposite Antonius’ front line, the darkness heavily obscured
a formidable Vitellian battle formation. The approaching army was presently
leaderless, as its general, Aulus Caecina Alienus, was in irons after plotting
to defect to the Flavians. The absence of their senior commander, combined with
the dark of night, served to create some initial confusion within the ranks of
the Vitellians. On the extreme right, the Legio IIII Macedonica advanced in the
company of the Fifth and Fifteenth legions, which were stationed in the centre
along with vexillations of the Legio IX Hispana, Legio II Augusta and the Legio
XX Valeria Victrix. On the left, the Sixteenth and First legions were joined by
the Legio XXII Primigenia. Within the ranks of each was included a liberal
distribution of soldiers from the depleted cohorts of the Legio XXI Rapax and
Legio I Italica. Completing the arrangement was the army’s cavalry and auxilia,
which were arrayed around the main body of heavy infantry. Some distance from
Bedriacium, the contending armies met in a decisive confrontation. The battle
lasted throughout the night, and proved to be a savage, confusing struggle
whose outcome remained uncertain until dawn when the men of the Legio III
Gallica, imbued with a certain Syrian custom after many years of service in the
orient, turned and saluted the rising sun. The Vitellians misunderstood the
gesture, and concluded that the Third Legion was acknowledging the arrival of
reinforcements. Using the dissemination of this misinformation to best
advantage, the Flavian cohorts vigorously advanced as if supported by fresh
divisions. The ruse worked to further demoralize an enemy already weakened by a
lack of leadership, and Antonius seized the opportunity to launch an assault
against the opposing line. The forceful attack broke the Vitellian formation,
and a subsequent attempt to reform proved futile because the oppressed cohorts
were driven back among their own supply wagons and artillery. Unable to
recover, Vitellius’ forces dissolved into headlong retreat toward Cremona,
pursued by the victorious troops of Vespasian.
Via Salaria
AD 69, 20-21 December (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman
Civil Wars) – In preparation for marching his legions into Rome, Flavian
general Marcus Antonius Primus sent an advance column of 1,000 cavalry along
the Salarian Way with orders to enter the north-eastern part of the city and
secure the Colline Gate. As the detachment of horsemen led by Quintus Petilius
Cerialis approached their destination, they encountered a Vitellian force,
consisting of both infantry and cavalry, blocking the Via Salaria. The resulting
battle occurred in a developed area outside the city walls where the maze of
buildings, gardens and winding streets proved a liability for Cerialis’ troops.
At the same time, the familiar surroundings permitted the Vitellians to exploit
the situation to best tactical advantage and eventually put the enemy to ?ight.
The subsequent pursuit by the victors lasted only as far as the town of
Fidenae, some 5 miles (8km) north of Rome on the same highway.
Rome
AD 69, 20-21 December (Year of the Four Emperors, Roman
Civil Wars) – The Roman civil war that followed the death of Nero in the early
summer of AD 68 climaxed eighteen months later in the autumn of 69 with an
intense struggle between the armies of Emperor Aelius Vitellius and his
challenger, the veteran legatus, Titus Flavius Vespasianus. Following the
victory of Flavian legions at Bedriacum (Calvatone) in northern Italy,
Vespasian’s lieutenant, Marcus Antonius Primus, marched south toward Rome with
the intention of finishing the conflict. Advancing along the Via Flaminia,
Antonius’ army arrived in late evening at Saxa Rubra, a village located some 6
miles (9.6km) north of the capital. Here he learned that a 1,000-man cavalry
detachment, dispatched by him earlier under the com- mand of Quintus Petilius Cerialis,
had been defeated on the Via Salaria near Rome. Further, it appeared the
preponderance of popular support in the city was for Vitellius. While the army
halted temporarily on the far side of the river, a senatorial delegation
arrived with a peace proposal for Antonius, soon followed by Vestals bearing
letters from Vitellius requesting the Flavians delay their march until the next
day. The general was inclined to accede to the request and camp near the
Milvian Bridge, but the legions refused to stop their advance and demanded
Antonius continue on despite the late hour. Once the Flavians resumed their
march, they divided into three columns: one force continuing along the
Flaminian Way, a second to the right of the highway following the banks of the
Tiber and a third approaching the Colline Gate on the north-eastern side of the
city. The Vitellians countered by deploying troops ahead of each of these
columns. As a result, widespread fighting occurred near the northern and
north-eastern walls of the city, on the Campus Martius and in the Sixth, or
Alta Semita, Region of the city. In addition, Antonius’ legions encountered
particularly stiff resistance at the Castra Praetoria, which only ended after
the complete destruction of the veteran praetorian cohorts of the emperor.
After hours of combat, the Flavian divisions finally gained control of the city
in late afternoon. By that time Vitellius was dead, murdered by soldiers
earlier in the day.
