The unexpected death of Henry II in 1559 ushered in
thirty-five years of royal weakness and internal strife. Henry’s immediate
successor, the teenaged Francis II, reigned for barely a year; he was succeeded
by Henry’s second son, the 10-year-old Charles IX. Henry’s widowed queen, the
shrewd and capable Florentine princess Catherine de’ Medici, picked up the
pieces and served as regent. She would continue to be a force at court long
after Charles, an uninspiring and mentally suspect man, reached his majority
Catherine eventually rallied the royal cause in the name of her sons – three
would rule France – but in the meantime a few crucial years had been lost to
dynastic flux and confusion. France descended towards a complicated, many-sided
civil war.
The French crisis was in part purely political, as the most
prominent and ambitious noble families of the realm jockeyed both with each
other, and with the crown, for position and power. This competition would only
intensify as it became clear that Catherine’s three sons, the last Valois kings
of France, would remain without legitimate issue. The struggle in France was
also, of course, about religion. Calvinism had found many converts,
particularly in the south and west, and also within some of the greatest noble
houses. Faith and family therefore determined the factions. The most powerful
Catholic party was that of the Guise; their rival-allies included the
Montmorency Several clans shared – and squabbled over – leadership of the
French Protestants, or Huguenots. Among these men were Gaspard de Coligny and
the Bourbon princes of Conde. The Valois remained staunchly Catholic, but
Catherine de’ Medici was profoundly – and correctly – suspicious of the Guise.
She also rightly concluded that her own family had the most to lose by civil
war, and so Catherine was often, but not always, one of the foremost promoters
of settlement and peace. In January of 1562 she promoted a royal edict that
granted Huguenots the right to worship openly.
Toleration proved no solution to the French crisis, as a
particularly provocative act of violence forced a civil war. On 1 March 1562
the armed entourage of the Duke of Guise massacred a Huguenot congregation
discovered holding a service – now perfectly legal – in a barn outside the
small town of Vassy. In response the Protestants of France rose in arms, and
committed their own excesses: in late April, Lyons was pillaged with
exceptional ferocity Indeed, atrocity and counter-atrocity would be the steady,
brutal pattern of the wars to come.
First War of
Religion, (1562–1563)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots (with English
aid) in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Huguenots sought religious
freedom.
OUTCOME: A degree of tolerance was granted to the Huguenots.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Catholics,
23,000; Huguenots, 15,000 (including 3,000 English troops)
CASUALTIES: Military losses were about 4,000 killed on each
side; Huguenot civilian losses were about 3,000 killed.
TREATIES: Peace of Amboise (March 1563)
On March 1, 1562, supporters of the Catholic duke François
de Guise (1519–63) killed a congregation of Protestants at Vassy. This massacre
was instigated by the granting of limited toleration to the Protestants by
Catherine de’ Medici (1519–85), the queen mother who took control of the throne
at the death of King Francis II (1544– 60). The Catholics, under François de
Guise, the Constable de Montmorency (Anne, duc de Montmorency; 1493– 1567), and
Prince Antoine de Bourbon (1518–62), king of Navarre, and the Protestants,
under Louis I de Bourbon, prince of Condé (1530–69), and Comte Gaspard de
Coligny (1519–72), admiral of France, were soon pitted against each other in a
battle known as the First War of Religion. Louis de Condé and Gaspard de
Coligny ordered the Huguenots to seize Orléans to retaliate for the Vassy
massacre and called on all Protestants in France to rebel. In September 1562,
the English sent John Dudley (fl. 16th century) of Warwick to help the
Huguenots, and his force captured Le Havre. About one month later, the
Catholics defeated Rouen, a Protestant stronghold. One of the leaders of the
Catholic movement, Antoine de Bourbon, was killed during the attack. The Huguenots
continued to rise in rebellion, and in December 15,000 Protestants under Condé
and Coligny marched north to join the English troops at Le Havre. En route,
they encountered about 19,000 Catholics at Dreux. The Catholics under Guise
were victorious, but one of their leaders, Montmorency, was captured, as was
the Protestant leader Condé. On February 18, 1563, Guise was killed while
besieging Orléans. Peace was finally secured in March when Montmorency and
Condé, both prisoners since the Battle of Dreux, negotiated a settlement at the
request of Queen Catherine. The Peace of Amboise stipulated a degree of
tolerance. The opposing sides then combined forces to push the English from Le
Havre, which fell on July 28, 1563.
Further reading: R. J. Knecht, The French Civil Wars,
1562–1598 (New York: Pearson Education, 2000); R. J. Knecht and Mabel Segun,
French Wars of Religion (New York: Addison-Wesley Longman, 1996).
Second War of
Religion, (1567–1568)
The interrelated struggles in France and the Low Countries
ended with the defeat of Philip II, both in his attempt to suppress the Dutch
Revolt and in his aim to prevent the accession of Henry IV in France. Spain,
however, displayed its military power, not only in its successful re-conquest
of the southern half of the Low Countries, but also in its ability to affect
the course of the bitter civil conflict in France.
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Huguenots sought religious
freedom.
OUTCOME: A degree of tolerance was granted to the Huguenots.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: 16,000 French
(Catholics); 3,500 Huguenots
CASUALTIES: Numbers unknown, but heavy on both sides
TREATIES: Peace of Longjumeau (March 1568)
The Peace of Amboise (July 28, 1563), which stipulated a
greater degree of tolerance between the Catholics and the Huguenots in France,
ended the First WAR OF RELIGION. However, peace lasted only four years. On
September 29, 1567, the Huguenots under Louis de Bourbon, prince de Condé
(1530–69), and Comte Gaspard de Coligny (1519–72) tried to capture the royal
family at Meaux. Although they were unsuccessful, other Protestant bands
threatened Paris and captured Orléans, Auxerre, Vienne, Valence, Nîmes,
Montpellier, and Montaubon. At the Battle of St. Denis, a force of 16,000 men
under Constable de Montmorency (Anne, duc de Montmorency; 1493–1567), attacked
Condé’s small army of 3,500. Despite the long odds, the Huguenots managed to
remain on the field for several hours. Montmorency, aged 74, was killed during
the fray. This war ended on March 23, 1568, with the Peace of Longjumeau by
which the Huguenots gained substantial concessions from Queen Catherine de’ Medici
(1519–85).
Third War of
Religion, (1568–1570)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Huguenots sought religious
freedom.
OUTCOME: A degree of tolerance was granted to the Huguenots.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS:
Catholics, 18,000; Huguenots, 16,500
CASUALTIES: Catholics, 1,000 killed or wounded;
Huguenots, 8,400 killed or wounded
TREATIES: Peace of St. Germain, August 8, 1570
The Third War of Religion broke out on August 18, 1568, when
Catholics attempted to capture Louis de Bourbon, prince de Condé (1530–69), and
Comte Gaspard de Coligny (1519–72), the primary Protestant leaders. The
Royalist Catholics continued to suppress Protestantism. Sporadic fighting
occurred throughout the Loire Valley for the remainder of 1568. In March 1569,
the Royalists under Marshal Gaspard de Tavannes (1509–73) engaged in battle
with Condé’s forces in the region between Angoulême and Cognac. Later in March,
Tavanne crossed the Charente River near Châteauneuf and soundly defeated the
Huguenots at the Battle of Jarmac. Although Condé was captured and murdered, Coligny
managed to withdraw a portion of the Protestant army in good order. About three
months later, help for the Huguenots arrived in the form of 13,000 German
Protestant reinforcements. This enlarged force laid siege to Poitiers. Then on
August 24, 1569, Coligny sent Comte Gabriel de Montgomery (c. 1530–74) to
Orthez, where he repulsed a Royalist invasion of French held Navarre and
defeated Catholic forces arranged against him. Royalist marshal Tavanne then
relieved Poitiers and forced Coligny to raise the siege. The major battle of
the Third War of Religion occurred on October 3, 1569, at Moncontour. The
Royalists, aided by a force of Swiss sympathizers, forced the Huguenot cavalry
off the field and then crushed the Huguenot infantry. The Huguenots lost about
8,000, whereas Royalist losses numbered about 1,000. The following year,
however, Coligny marched his Huguenot forces through central France from April
through June and began threatening Paris. These actions forced the Peace of St.
Germain, which granted many religious freedoms to the Protestants.
Religion, Fourth War
of (1572–1573)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Huguenots sought religious
freedom.
OUTCOME: A degree of tolerance was granted to the Huguenots,
and a group of moderate Catholics formed a new political party known as the
Politiques.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS:
Unknown
CASUALTIES: Unknown
TREATIES: None
A massacre of 3,000 Protestants and their leader Louis de
Bourbon, prince of Condé (1530–69), precipitated the outbreak of the Fourth War
of Religion between Catholics and Protestants in France. After the massacre of
St. Bartholomew’s Eve in Paris, August 24, 1572, Prince Henry IV of Navarre
(1553–1610) took charge of the Protestant forces. Marked primarily by a long
siege of La Rochelle by Royalist forces under another Prince Henry, the younger
brother of Charles IX (1550–74), this Fourth War of Religion resulted in the
Protestants’ gaining military control over most of southwest France. However,
at least 3,000 more Huguenots were massacred in the provinces before the war
ended.
The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre outraged even Catholic
moderates, who, seeking to counter the extremes of the Catholic Royalists,
formed a new political party, the Politiques, to negotiate with the Protestants
and establish peace and national unity.
Religion, Fifth War
of (1575–1576)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: Henry, duc de Guise; and his
Royalist faction wanted to take the French throne away from Henry III, who was
more tolerant of religious differences than they.
OUTCOME: The Royalist Catholics under Henry, duke de Guise,
formed a Holy League with King Philip of Spain to secure the French throne for
the Catholics.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Unknown
CASUALTIES: Unknown
TREATIES: Peace of Mousieur, May 5, 1576
Protestants and Catholics in France had been fighting
sporadically since 1562 in the First War of RELIGION, the Second War of
RELIGION, the Third War of RELIGION, and the Fourth War of RELIGION when violence
again erupted in 1575. In the most important action of this war, Henry, duc de
Guise (1555–88), led the Catholic Royalists to victory at the Battle of
Dormans. Aligned against Guise, however, were not only the Protestants under
Henry IV of Navarre (1553–1610) but also the Politiques, moderate Catholics who
wanted the king to make peace with the Protestants and restore national unity.
Henry III (1551–89) was not wholeheartedly in support of Guise, and he offered
pledges of more religious freedom to the Protestants at the Peace of Mousieur,
signed on May 5, 1576. Guise refused to accept the terms of the peace and began
negotiating with Philip II (1527–98) of Spain to organize a Holy League and
secure Spain’s help in capturing the French thro ne.
Sixth and Seventh
Wars of Religion, (1576–1577, 1580)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Huguenots sought religious
freedom.
OUTCOME: After subduing the Protestants, Henry III wavered
in his determination to carry out the terms of the Peace of Bergerac.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Unknown
CASUALTIES: Unknown
TREATIES: Peace of Bergerac (1577)
The Sixth War of Religion between the Catholics and
Protestants in France included only one campaign and was settled by the Peace
of Bergerac of 1577. During this period, Henry III (1551–89) tried to persuade
the Holy League, formed in 1576 by Catholic leader Henry, duke de Guise
(1555–88), and Philip II (1527–98) of Spain, to support an attack on the
Protestants. Henry succeeded in subduing the Protestants but wavered in his
determination to carry out the terms of the Peace of Bergerac.
The Seventh War of Religion in 1580, also known as the
“Lovers’ War,” had little to do with hostilities between the Catholics and
Protestants. Instead fighting was instigated by the actions of Margaret, the
promiscuous wife of Henry IV of Navarre (1553–1610). Over the next five years,
Catholics, Protestants, and the moderate Politiques all engaged in intrigue in
their attempts to name a successor to the childless Henry III. Although Henry
of Navarre was next in line by direct heredity, the Holy League maneuvered to
ensure that Henry, duc de Guise, would gain the throne after the reign of
Charles de Bourbon (1566–1612), proposed as the successor to Henry III.
Eighth War of
Religion, (1585–1589)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Catholics vs. Huguenots in France
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): France
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Catholic Royalists in
France wanted to ensure that one of their numbers would be named successor to
the childless Henry III.
OUTCOME: King Henry named the Protestant leader Henry of
Navarre as his successor.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Catholics,
8,700+; Huguenots, 6,500
CASUALTIES: Catholics, 3,400 killed; Huguenots, 200 killed
TREATIES: None
The Eighth War of Religion, also known as the “War of the
Three Henrys,” pitted the Royalist Henry III (1551–89), Henry of Navarre
(1553–1610), and Henry de Guise (1555–88) against each other in a struggle over
succession to the French throne. The war began when Henry III withdrew many of
the concessions he had granted to the Protestants during his reign. At the
Battle of Coutras on October 20, 1587, the army of Henry of Navarre, 1,500
cavalry and 5,000 infantry, smashed the Royalist cavalry—1,700 lancers—and
7,000 infantry. More than 3,000 Royalists were killed; Protestant deaths
totaled 200. Especially effective against the Royalist was the massed fire of
the Protestant arquebuses, primitive muskets.
Despite the Protestant victory at Coutras, the Catholics
under Henry of Guise prevailed at Vimoy and Auneau and checked the advance of a
German army marching into the Loire Valley to aid to Protestants. Henry’s next
victory was in Paris, where he forced the king to capitulate in May 1588. In
subsequent intrigues, Henry de Guise and his brother Cardinal Louis I de Guise
(1527–78) were assassinated. Fleeing the Catholics’ rage over the murders,
Henry III sought refuge with Protestant leader Henry of Navarre. The king
failed to find permanent safety and was assassinated, stabbed to death, by a
Catholic monk on August 2, 1589. On his deathbed, the king named Henry of
Navarre his successor. The Catholics refused to acknowledge him king, insisting
instead that Cardinal Charles de Bourbon (1566–1612) was the rightful ruler of
France. This conflict sparked the NINTH WAR OF RELIGION.
