Russia’s victory at Poltava (1709) led to the fall of the Swedish empire in northern Europe.
Casualty rates in the battles of this period were formidable. At Poltava the Swedes suffered terrible casualties, as their attack on well-defended Russian posit ions exposed them to superior forces and artillery. Only 14 of the 700-strong Uppland regiment, and 40 of the 500 in the Skaraborg battalion, survived.
The Swedish infantry assault overran the first redoubts. Above right The Russian counterattack trapped and destroyed most of the Swedish army.
The battle of Poltava marked the turning point in the epic struggle of the Great Northern War (1700- 21) that decided the balance of power in northern Europe and marked the emergence of Russia as a great power. The war began with a combined attack by Russia, Denmark and Saxony-Poland. The Allies hoped to partition Sweden’s Baltic empire between them, but seriously underestimated the young king Charles XII. Having knocked out Denmark within a few month s, Charles defeated Tsar Peter the Great at Narva in November 1700. Russia remained at war, but could do little to prevent Charles overrunning both Poland and Saxony by 1706. The Swedes rested in Saxony, creating considerable apprehension as to their next move. Aware that Russia was rebuilding its forces, Charles turned eastwards through Poland and into the Ukraine in 1707.
The main army of 38,000 crossed the Berezina and defeated a Russian force at Holowczyn in July 170B. But it was clear that Peter’s forces were much improved. The Russian army was already being transformed before he became Tsar in 1696. Peter stepped up the programme of integrating western European ideas and technology with native experience and numbers. Though unsuccessful at Narva, the Russians were gaining confidence and already displaced most of the hired foreigners in the senior ranks by 1708. Military doctrine was revised after Holowczyn to give greater emphasis on firepower to counter the Swedish shock (gå på) tactics. However, Peter was not yet ready for a major battle and continued to retreat, destroying the countryside as he went.
The Swedes suffered grievously in the harsh winter of 1708 after their supply convoy was captured at Lesnaia in October. Intending to open the route northeast to Moscow, Charles besieged the small town of Poltava on the Vorskla, a tributary of the Dnieper. The place was poorly fortified, but the Swedes lacked proper equipment and the siege dragged on. Charles needed a decisive victory to win fresh ground and convince the Turks and Tartars to join him. Peter also sought battle and moved across the Vorskla to an entrenched camp north of Poltava. Charles was wounded in the foot during a small skirmish and had to be carried about in a litter. Nonetheless, he resolved to attack, entrusting tactical command to Field Marshal Rehnskold (16S1-1722).
The Russian position
The Swedes had a formidable task. The main Russian army was entrenched in a rough rectangle backing onto the bluffs above the Vorskla. There were only three exits and the approach was strewn with obstacles. There were 51 infantry battalions totalling 25,000 men inside with 73 guns, many of which were on platforms to fire over the parapet. Any approach from the west was blocked by the Ivanchinsti stream and 8udyschenski wood, both watched by Cossack cavalry. The Yakovetski wood extended from the southern side as far as Poltava and was guarded by another 1,000 infantry and a similar number of Cossacks. Poltava was held by a further 4,000 foot and 28 guns. This left only a narrow route between the two woods. A line of earth redoubts was built to block this with another line extending at right angles towards the Swedish camp so as to enfilade any attacking force. Eight battalions totalling 4,000 men held these redoubts together with 16 guns, while 9,000 cavalry in 85 squadrons drew up behind under Prince Menshikov (1673-1729). The latter had another 13 light cannon attached.
Aware that other Russian forces were in the vicinity, Charles was forced to detach 1,800 cavalry (off the map) south of Poltava. Another 1,100 infantry, 200 cavalry and 2 guns held the siege lines around the town, with 1,000 Polish light cavalry in the Yakovetski wood. Most of the artillery was left behind with the baggage that was guarded by 2,000 horse and Charles’s Cossack allies. This left only 18 battalions (8,200 men), 109 squadrons (7,800 men) and a mere 4 guns for the assault. Charles intended to rush past the redoubts before dawn and attack the entrenched camp. By concentrating his entire force at one point, he hoped to break in and roll up the Russians who would be crowded together inside. This had worked at Narva, but now Charles was facing a very different Russian army.
The Swedish attack
The Swedes were delayed by the late arrival of their cavalry and did not advance until 3.45am on 8 July, by which time it was already light. Worse still, the battalion commanders were not told whether they should move past or storm the redoubts. As a result, six battalions got left behind under Major General Roos, Menshikov counter attacked, but was beaten off by the Swedish cavalry that also cleared the Cossacks from the Budyschenski wood. Most of the Russian cavalry fled northwards to a gully called the Great Ouvrage, pursued by the Swedish horse, but some rallied under Menshikov south of the camp.
Rehnskold regrouped the Swedish infantry in a depression about 1 km (0.6 miles) west of the enemy camp, but was unable to make the main attack because Roos’ group was still on the wrong side of the redoubts. Roos had lost over 1,000 men trying to take the redoubts. He now had no idea where the main army was and retreated into the Yakovetski wood with 1,600 survivors. Realizing his predicament, Menshikov sent a strong force of infantry and dragoons to catch him. Roos was finally forced to surrender near Poltava at 9.30 am after heroic resistance.
Peter had learnt his lesson at Narva, and now advanced smartly out of his camp to attack the main Swedish force. Leaving a small force to hold the camp, he massed 22,000 infantry in two lines, flanked by his dragoons who had now rallied. The Swedes could muster barely more than a single line of foot, while most of their cavalry were still reforming after their earlier efforts. Nonetheless, they stuck to their offensive tactics and charged the Russians. Some battalions managed to close, despite heavy musket and artillery fire, but the Swedes were overwhelmed by superior numbers and dissolved in rout.
Swedish surrender
Charles and the survivors fled south to Perevolochna where their path was blocked by the Dnieper River. The king and his escort managed to get across, but the rest were too demoralized to resist once the Russians arrived and surrendered on 13July. Having been stripped, the Swedes were forced to watch the execution of the Cossacks who had joined them and were then marched off into captivity. Charles escaped to exile in Turkey, before returning to Sweden and dying in action in 1718. Sweden relinquished most of its Baltic empire in the 1721 peace settlement that confirmed Russia’s new status as a great power.
Russians
- 30,000 infantry; 9,000 cavalry; about 3,000 Cossacks; 102 guns, plus the Poltava garrison
- Commanded by Prince Alexander Danilovitch Menshikov (under the overall command of Tsar Peter the Great)
- 1,345 killed and 3,200 wounded
Swedes
- 9,500 infantry; 12,800 cavalry; 32 guns and up to 5,000 Cossacks
- Commanded by Field Marshal Count Carl Gunther Rehnskold (under the overall command of King Charles XII)
- 6,900 killed and wounded, plus 2,800 (mostly wounded) prisoners. Another 13,558 soldiers and 5,000 civilians were captured at Perevolochna
