■
PARAETAKENA (PARAECENE), 317 BCE
A battle in Media during the War of the Successors between
the Macedonian forces of Eumenes of Cardia and Antigonus Monopthlamus. Eumenes
anticipated Antigonus’s river crossing, inflicting casualties, but failing to
stop his rival’s advance.
■
GABIENE, 316 BCE
Final battle in Media between Eumenes of Cardia and
Antigonus Monopthalmus. After Antigonus captured Eumenes’ supplies, Macedonian
elite forces, the Argyraspids, betrayed Eumenes to Antigonus, who rid himself
of a formidable rival by executing him.
■ GAZA,
312 BCE
Decisive strategic defeat for Antigonus Monopthalmus by the
combined armies of Ptolemy and Seleucus. Antigonus’s son, Demetrius, lost a
large-scale battle near the city, costing his father control of Syria and hope
of conquering Egypt.
■
SALAMIS (CYPRUS), 308 BCE
Demetrius Poliorcetes with 118 warships held 60 ships of
Ptolemy blockaded at their Cyprian base with just 10 vessels, defeating 140
relieving Egyptian galleys at sea with the remainder. Demetrius’s victorious
left rolled up the Egyptian centre.
■
SALAMIS (CYPRUS), 306 BCE
Successful Antigonid storming of Ptolemy’s Cyprian naval
base by Demetrius Poliorcetes. Demetrius employed sea-borne catapults and a
moving multi-storey siege tower against the Egyptian defenders. The capture of
Salamis much improved the Antigonid position in the Mediterranean.
■ SIEGE
OF RHODES, 305–304 BCE
An epic siege in which Demetrius Poliorcetes and his siege
train failed to reduce the island democracy’s capital. Demetrius’s monster
terrestrial and naval siege engines met equivalent responses from the
defenders, supplied by the Antigonids’ rivals.
■ IPSOS,
304 BCE
Catastrophic defeat of the Antigonid Empire in Asia, leading
to the death of Antigonus Monophthalmus and Demetrius Poliorcetes’ retreat to
the islands and port cities of the eastern Mediterranean. The battle took place
in eastern Central Asia Minor near where Lysimachus, ruler of Thrace,
successfully eluded Antigonus’s army in a southward march. Lysimachus
rendezvoused with Seleucus, who had ceded Alexander’s conquest in India to
obtain 480 elephants, which he had transported at tremendous expense across Persia.
The two allies combined 64,000 foot, 10,500 cavalry and 120 chariots to move
against Antigonus’s 70,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 75 elephants.
Demetrius’s initial charge with the cavalry succeeded, but Demetrius was unable
to prevent the allied infantry and elephants from crushing his father’s
infantry and body in the resulting disaster. Their success in this battle
prompted the popularity of elephants in Hellenistic warfare.
■
THERMOPYLAE, 279 BCE
A Greek confederation failed to hold the pass against the
Gauls under Brennus seeking to move into and plunder the cities of Greece.
After a repulse, the Gauls bypassed the defenders, who evacuated by sea.
■
CORUPEDION, 281 BCE
Decisive defeat in late summer of Lysimachus, 80, by
Seleucus, 77, invading Thrace from Asia Minor. In this final battle between
Alexander’s former generals, the armies fought in western Asia Minor.
Lysimachus perished in the fighting.
■
ANDROS, 246 BCE
Naval victory off the Greek coast by the Macedonian fleet of
Antigonus Gonatus over the Egyptian squadron of Ptolemy II. Antigonus, 73,
employed some of the largest vessels ever in combat in the ancient world.
■ LAMIA,
1ST AND 2ND BATTLES, 209 BCE
Two battles lost by the Aetolians under Pyrrhias attempting
to defend their capital against Philip V of Macedon’s advance southwards.
Support from Attalus of Pergamon and a thousand Roman marines did not prevent
the defeats.
■
MANTINEA, 207 BCE
The battle of Mantinea was caused by an attack by
Machanidas, the tyrant of Sparta, against Philopoemen and the Achaean League,
mustering in the nearby city. Machinadas’s catapults scattered the Achaean
mercenaries, but Philopoemen, rallying his forces on better ground, defeated
and killed Machanidas.
■ CHIOS,
201 BCE
Large fleet action between the navies of Philip V of Macedon
and the Rhodians and Attalus of Pergamon. The Macedonians recovered from
initial reverses, but Philip had to abandon his effort to capture neighbouring
Samos.
■ LADE,
201 BCE
Naval defeat by Philip V of Macedon of the Rhodian fleet as
it sought to prevent his conquest of Rhodian possessions on the mainland
opposite the island. The Rhodians afterwards appealed to Rome for aid.
■
CORINTH, 198 BCE
Unsuccessful siege of Philip V’s southernmost fortress in
Greece by the younger Flamininus and the fleets of Attalus of Pergamon and
Rhodes. A naval bombardment breached the Macedonian defences, but a phalanx in
the breach held.
■ AOUS,
198 BCE
Philip V’s fortified position preventing a juncture of
Flamininus’s army with Rome’s Aetolian allies to the south. Flamininus found a
local guide to take the Romans behind and above Philip’s lines, successfully
routing the Macedonians.
■
CYNOSCEPHALAE, 197 BCE
Cynescephalae was the decisive battle of the Second
Macedonian War, the set-piece clash of the Macedonian phalanx with the Roman
manipular legion. Reinforced by veterans returning from Carthage, Flamininus
took two legions in pursuit of Philip V’s full strength, consolidated in
Thessaly for battle. Roman skirmishers and allied cavalry moving up one side of
a ridge encountered their Macedonian counterparts, prompting Flamininus to
launch an all-out assault before the Macedonian formations were fully ready for
battle. Philip’s consolidated forces on the right formed a deep phalanx. This
formation crested the ridge and drove down upon the legionaries, the long pikes
of the Macedonians still proving effective in pushing the legionaries back.
Flamininus took his elephants and unengaged right, rolling up the disorganized
Macedonians opposite while the last line of the retreating legion took the
Macedonians in flank, completing the rout with heavy casualties.
■
GYTHEUM, 194 BCE
City of the Achaean League besieged by Nabis, tyrant of
Sparta. Philopoemen and the League moved before the Romans could effectively
intervene, striking against Nabis by land and sea. The Achaeans lost at sea to
Nabis’s blockading squadron when a recommissioned war memorial foundered, and
Gytheum fell. The Achaeans then destroyed Nabis’s disorganized forces in a
night attack and besieged Sparta, while Roman marines captured Gytheum and
imposed a peace.
■
THERMOPYLAE II, 191 BCE
Antiochus III, with 14,000 infantry and 500 cavalry, held
the historic pass against Roman forces seeking to evict the Seleucids from
Greece. Cato the Censor led a detachment around an unguarded trail, causing a
disastrous rout.
■ PYDNA
(THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR), 172–167 BCE
Philip V’s heir Perseus’s efforts to restore Macedonian
prestige in Greece led to friction and conflict with the Achaean League and
Eumenes of Pergamon, both of whom were successful in drawing Rome’s attention
back to the tense situation in the Balkans. Upon Rome’s declaration of
hostilities, Perseus retreated behind the safety of his borders and prolonged
the war with defensive campaigning. The strategy was a sensible one, which
strained Rome’s alliances and supply streams. Perseus moved his forces into a
strong position near his capital at Pydna and awaited Aemelius Paulus’s attack.
Two rivers protected the Macedonian flanks on the ridge
where the phalanx awaited; Paulus accordingly was reluctant to engage. For
unknown reasons Perseus’s phalanx charged down the hill into the Roman line,
unsupported by their cavalry. A sacrificial stand by the Achaeans apparently
created enough disorder for the Roman legionaries to cut their way in and
utterly destroy the Macedonian army and empire.
■
CALLICINUS, 171 BCE
Opening engagement of the Third Macedonian War. Perseus had
39,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry, while the Roman army of Licinius consisted of
two legions containing 12,000 largely inexperienced Italian troops. Perseus
forced the Romans to retreat.
■ PYDNA,
148 BCE
One Andriscus, claiming Perseus as his father, seized
control of Macedonia in 149. After defeating a legion under Juventius Thalna,
two legions under Caecilius Metellus crushed Andriscus near the capital of
Pydna. Rome then annexed Macedonia.
■
CORINTH, 146 BCE
Site of the Achaean League’s last effort against Roman
domination of Greece; the army of Consul L. Mummius obliterated the League’s
final levy and levelled the ancient and prosperous city, selling its
inhabitants into slavery.
With morale restored, Pyrrhus deployed his war elephants,
which the Romans had never before encountered. The Roman cavalry was routed and
the infantry severely disordered by this assault. The Roman force was saved
from complete disaster by the tendency of wounded elephants to run amok,
disrupting their own side’s formations.
The Roman force disengaged and the Greeks were able to
advance almost as far as Rome itself. However, both sides had taken very heavy
losses and Pyrrhus was not confident of victory if he assaulted the city. His force
pulled back and wintered in Tarentum.
■
ASCULUM, 279 BCE
After first encountering Greek war elephants at Heraclea,
the Romans had developed anti-elephant tactics. On the first day of the battle
of Asculum, the wooded and hilly terrain impeded the elephants and cavalry,
resulting in a bloody but inconclusive clash between infantry forces. An
aggressive redeployment by the Greeks forced the Romans to fight in terrain
better suited to the use of elephants and the dense phalanx of the Greeks. A
flank attack by the Greek elephants broke the Roman cavalry and caused a
hurried withdrawal, giving the Greeks possession of the battlefield. Heavy
losses on the winning side led to the concept of the ‘Pyrrhic Victory’.
■
SYRACUSE, C.279 BCE
To prevent King Pyrrhus from using Syracuse as a base for
operations on Sicily, Carthaginian forces allied to Rome besieged the city.
Pyrrhus landed Eryx and Panormus, then marched to break the siege of Syracuse.
■
CORINTH, 265 BCE
After two years of indecisive campaigning, the Greek
coalition against Macedon had made some minor progress. The coalition suffered
a severe defeat at Corinth, after which the war went very much against them.
■
MACEDONIA, 263 BCE
The Greek coalition against Macedonia collapsed with the
fall of Athens to Macedonian troops and a peace treaty with Sparta. This
cemented Macedonian control over Greece, though Egypt continued to interfere in
Greek affairs.
■
INVASION OF SYRIA, 263 BCE
Entering into alliance with Seleucid Persia, Macedonian
troops campaigned into Syria with the intention of driving Egyptian forces out
of the Aegean region. Macedonian interest in the region waned as troubles grew
on the northern borders.
■ COS,
258 BCE
The Egyptian and Macedonian fleets met off Cos in a clash
that decisively weakened Egyptian naval power. Details are sketchy, and the
date has been disputed by several historians. An alternate date of 255 BCE has
been suggested.
■
ANDROS, 245 BCE
Continued naval clashes between Egypt and Macedon led to a
battle off Andros in 245 or 246 BCE. Egyptian power in the Cyclades island
group was broken as a result of this defeat.
■
ANCYRA, 236 BCE
Having been installed as regent in Asia Minor, Antiochus
Hierax rebelled against his brother Seleucus II of Persia. Seleucus was
decisively defeated in a clash at Ancyra, making a hasty retreat across the
River Taurus.
■
RAPHIA, 217 BCE
After a period of skirmishing, the Egyptian and Seleucid
armies clashed, with the Egyptian flanks soon broken. The phalangites of both
armies fought on for some time, with the Egyptians finally emerging victorious.
■
INVASION OF PARTHIA, 209 BCE
After the failure of a first expedition by Seleucus II to
retake Parthia from the Parni, a second campaign under Antiochus III brought
the region under Seleucid control as a vassal state.
■ ARIUS,
209 BCE
A force of Parthian cavalry attempted to halt the Seleucid
advance at the river Arius. The Seleucid advance guard, composed mainly of
elite troops, crossed the river at night and surprised the Parthians in their
camp.
■ WAR OF
ANTIOCHUS, III 208–06 BCE
After securing his northern frontier by reducing Parthia to
a vassal state, Antiochus III marched eastward, forcing a peace settlement upon
the rebellious province of Bactria. He then forayed into India where he was
gifted with war elephants.
■
PANIUM, 198 BCE
Having seized Syria and Palestine, the Seleucids held it for
a short time before they were driven out by additional forces from Egypt.
Antiochus launched a new campaign to regain control of the province,
culminating in the battle of Panium. The Seleucids’ chief advantage was their
use of cataphract cavalry, which defeated and drove off the Egyptian cavalry on
the flanks, then attacked the rear of the enemy’s main infantry body.
■
EURYMEDON, 190 BCE
With the Seleucid intervention in Greece defeated by a Roman
army at Thermopylae, Antiochus III was forced to abandon the campaign. Roman
forces then went on the offensive, making control of the Aegean vital to both
sides. The Seleucid fleet was commanded by the Carthaginian Hannibal, who was
in exile at the Seleucid court. Hannibal’s fleet suffered a heavy defeat at the
hands of a combined Roman–Rhodian force.
■
MYONESSUS, 190 BCE
Soon after the battle at Eurymedon, the Seleucid fleet was
again defeated by a roughly equal-sized force of Roman and Rhodian ships. The
superior experience of the Rhodians, and their use of fire-ships, were critical
factors.
■ MAGNESIA,
190 BCE
With the Roman army on the offensive and keen to seek a
decisive battle before winter set in, Antiochus set up a fortified camp and
awaited their arrival. The Roman formation was conventional, in three lines
with the Roman legions in the centre and allied forces holding the flanks. The
Roman force had some war elephants but these were African beasts, outmatched by
the Indian elephants of the Seleucid force in both numbers and physical power.
The Seleucid cavalry broke its opposite numbers on the Roman
left flank, but pursued them rather than turning on the Roman centre. The
Seleucid left flank was broken soon afterwards. In the centre, the two infantry
forces were evenly matched until a force of elephants mixed into the Seleucid
formation were routed and the pike-armed infantry became disordered. The
Seleucid force was then driven from the field.
■ WADI
HARAMIA, 167 BCE
Rising in revolt against Seleucid rule, Jewish forces under
Judas Maccabeus established themselves in the mountains near Samaria, from
where a force was sent against them. This was ambushed and overwhelmingly
defeated.
■ BETH
HORON, 166 BCE
A Seleucid force under the command of the general Seron was
sent to locate and destroy the Maccabean rebels. This force was surprised at
the Pass of Beth Horon and resoundingly defeated.
■
EMMAUS, 166 BCE
While Seleucid troops were in the field searching for his
camp, Judas Maccabeus led an audacious attack against the Seleucids’ base at
Emmaus. His force then harassed the Seleucids during their subsequent retreat.
■ BETH
ZUR, 164 BCE
Facing a Seleucid army under Lysias, governor of Syria, the
Maccabean forces resorted to guerrilla tactics to wear down the enemy. Once the
Seleucids were weakened, they were attacked and defeated at Beth Zur.
■ BETH
ZACHARIAH, 162 BCE
After capturing and ritually cleansing the temple at
Jerusalem, the Maccabees were faced with a new army under Lysias. The Jews
attempted to fight a set-piece field battle and were defeated by the
better-equipped Seleucids.
■ ADASA,
161 BCE
The newly appointed governor of Judah, Nicanor, led a
renewed attempt to crush the Maccabean revolt. Encountering the Jews at Adasa,
near Beth-Horon, the Seleucids attacked but were defeated. This bought the
revolt a brief respite.
■ ELASA,
160 BCE
Facing a vastly larger Seleucid force, Judas Maccabeus
launched an attack against the bodyguard of their commander, routing it. His
force was then overwhelmed by the remainder of the Seleucid army, and Judas was
killed.
■
ANTIOCH, 145 BCE
The diminished Seleucid kingdom in Syria was attacked by
forces backed by the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. The Seleucids were defeated,
though Pharaoh Ptolemy VI was killed in the fighting.
■
ECBATANA, 129 BCE
Antiochus VII led a campaign into Parthia to revive the
fortunes of the declining Seleucid Empire. His force was overwhelmingly
defeated at Ecbatana, bringing Seleucid ambitions in Parthia to an end.
