The British heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk at Akureyri
harbour, North Iceland, 17 October 1943. Photo taken from the flight deck of
USS Ranger. Grumman Wildcats are on her deck.
Allied troops land under the watchful eyes of
Icelandic civilians.
The landmass constituting the nation of Iceland has remained
relatively untainted for centuries – largely barren and volcanic, with minimal
development beyond a string of coastal towns and villages. In May 1940, the
population of the country was a mere 120,000, most of whom relied on fishing as
well as sheep ranching and exporting goods to Europe. Granted home rule in
1874, Iceland became a fully sovereign state on 1 December
1918 but remained in personal union with the King of
Denmark. Denmark also represented Icelandic foreign and defence interests,
however, when the German war- machine swept through Europe and occupied Denmark
in April 1940, the Icelandic government had no choice but to suspend this
arrangement. With no military force of her own, Iceland continued to remain neutral
– but, within a month, the war would come to her shores by other means.
Strategic interest in occupying Iceland could arguably be
dated back to the 1930s, with a sudden and noticeable influx of German presence
on the island. In 1938, a number of German aviation experts arrived, offering
free instruction in piloting gliders. This immediately raised British
suspicions as it was considered that these `lessons’ could be a means of
compiling maps and discovering suitable landing grounds. This paranoia amongst
British Officials was further indulged when German anthropology teams arrived
to survey the island, and Lufthansa attempted to establish a commercial air
service. Meanwhile, U-boats began to visit Reykjavik while German-Icelandic
trade increased rapidly.
As the war got into its stride, and the Battle of the
Atlantic began to rage in not-too-distant-seas, both Allied and Axis forces
started to look to Iceland and its strategic positioning once more. Having
control over Iceland’s landmass would be a fantastic opportunity for both sides
to establish air and naval bases across the country, and hopefully sway the
ongoing Atlantic campaign in their favour. In the words of an unidentified
German Naval Officer: “Whoever has Iceland controls the entrances into and
exits from the Atlantic.”
A LARGE CROWD OF PROTESTERS
On 28 April 1940, Winston Churchill, then the First Lord of
the Admiralty, had initiated planning to establish a British presence on
Iceland. With Denmark under Nazi occupation, the United Kingdom offered
assistance to Iceland “as a belligerent and an ally,” but the
Icelandic government were quick to decline and reaffirm their neutrality.
Despite the set-back of being denied access to the country for military
purposes, Britain still intended to land. The War Cabinet were quick to side
with the Admiralty and the occupation of Iceland under the name “Operation
Fork” began to take shape.
Planning was swift, with a force of around 800 British
military personnel setting sail for Iceland on 8 May, commanded by Colonel
Robert Sturges. The occupation force was built up from the 2nd Royal Marine
Battalion of the 101st Royal Marine Brigade, and included three batteries of
artillery and a small intelligence detachment. They were accompanied by two
destroyers for the journey across the Atlantic and were due to enter Reykjavik
Bay on the morning of 10 May. On that very same day, many hundreds of miles
away, the Germans launched their `Blitzkreig’ assault in the west, thereby
ensuring the relegation of what was happening in Iceland to a mere sideshow.
Ahead of the convoy, a single Walrus aircraft was dispatched
to scout the waters leading up to the capital city looking for enemy submarine
activity, but miscommunications had led to the aircraft circling Reykjavik,
thus alerting residents and officials alike to the approaching British force. A
large crowd of protesters and a 70-strong police force congregated at the
harbour to greet their intrusive visitors with a cold reception as the British
warships entered Reykjavik harbour. Meanwhile, the Icelandic government
prepared warning statements to the encroaching fleet announcing their violation
of Icelandic neutrality. Despite the obvious reluctance of the Icelanders for
British forces to land, a 400-strong detachment of Royal Marines were met with
no resistance.
The next step of the initial occupation plan required the
securing of telecommunication facilities, radio stations and meteorological
offices as well as arresting any German citizens lest they alert enemy forces
as to the details of the British operation. The highest priority arrest was
that of German consul Werner Gerlach, a fanatical member of the Nazi party,
who, under orders of the highest level, had been tasked with winning Icelanders
over to the German cause. For the likes of Werner Gerlach and others who shared
his ideologies, Iceland was a Germanic paradise of “pure racial
superiority”. He had been assigned to encourage the population of Iceland
to join the Nazi pursuit of racial purity, but had instead been met with what
he described as “a great disappointment.” His arrest and capture in
the German consulate had been swift, although the circling Walrus aircraft had
bought Dr. Gerlach enough time to burn vital documents before British forces
had even landed.
While British forces secured the rest of Reykjavik, small
detachments were sent to Hvalfjördur (a fjord), Sandskeid, Kaldadarnes and
other pivotal landing areas where a potential German counter-offensive could
occur. In the following weeks, defences would also be built in many of these
locations as well as across the Northern coast of Iceland to deter German air
raids. These defensive units scattered across the country would never see
action, as the much-feared German invasion would fail to materialise. A German
counter- offensive had been considered during the early stages of the British
occupation called “Operation Ikarus,” although it was quickly
dismissed. Despite Hitler’s anger over British control of Iceland, Operation
Ikarus would be consigned to the drawing board after it was deemed impractical.
With Iceland being in the middle of British-controlled waters, holding the
country and supplying German forces would be troublesome and dangerous, while
other events on show them all courtesies. Meanwhile, the United States of
America, although not yet a contender in the war, recognised and accepted Britain’s
move as a necessary step to forestall German invasion.
On 17 May, the initial British detachment was relieved by
147th Brigade (1/6th Duke of Wellington’s Regiment, 1/7th Duke of Wellington’s
Regiment, 1/5th West Yorkshire Regiment) of the 49th Division. With the
relative success of Operation Fork, Colonel Sturges’ Marine battalion returned
to the United Kingdom on 19 May and their relieving forces positioned
strategically throughout the capital and across the entire island.
With the occupation now in full swing, Icelanders found
themselves deeply divided in opinion over what effect the British presence
would have on their homeland. Some believed that Iceland might have the
opportunity to prosper under the military-control of Great Britain, and with
the prospect of coming out of a severe financial depression. Meanwhile, others
simply could not abide a totally unwanted and unexpected takeover. It is now
largely considered that Britain brought infrastructure advances to Iceland with
the building of roads and hospitals, as well as development of transportation
and communication. Even today, however, the occupation is often still a topic
of heated debate. Despite the ongoing clashes of opinion, marching columns of
British troops and Union Jack flags flying in towns and cities soon became
normal within the Icelandic community. The vast majority of the population were
able to go about their everyday lives with only minor interference from their
newly acquired guests. An agreement was struck between the two governments that
no more than 2,200 countrymen would be hired to work for the occupation forces.
The rest were required to continue their livelihoods of farming and fishing, so
as to ensure the country’s stability.
`CHILDREN OF THE SITUATION’
Fears of a German invasion continued into June 1940, with
the British Government requesting that Ottawa send reinforcements from Canada.
The call was answered with the arrival of “Z Force,” under the
command of Brigadier L. F. Page, on 16 June. The Canadian detachment consisted
of a brigade-sized unit of HQ staff, as well as one Infantry battalion from the
Royal Regiment of Canada. Two additional battalions for “Z Force”,
Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal and the Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa, arrived on 9
July. This brought the garrison of Iceland to the size of a composite division.
Canadian involvement in Iceland’s occupation would be short
lived, and by the end of October, 1940, “Z Force” would begin its
withdrawal from the country. Ottawa, preferring to concentrate forces in one
locale with its own command, requested that her units be replaced by further
British reinforcement. On 21 October, 1940, The 70th Brigade sailed from
Britain to relieve the Canadian forces and arrived on 25 October with 10th
Durham Light Infantry, 11th Durham Light Infantry and 1st Tyneside Scottish. In
exchange, a large proportion of the Canadian “Z Force” was shipped
out to the UK, with only the Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa staying to
over-winter in Iceland until April 1941.
By July 1941, over 25,000 British troops were stationed in
Iceland with the construction of naval facilities, coastal guns, AA batteries
and the presence of anti-submarine trawlers now making the country a defensive
stronghold against potential attack. With foreign troops now marginally
integrated into Icelandic society, both the native population and the British
Military Officials strongly discouraged fraternisation between local women and
soldiers. Many of the women who chose to be courted by Allied soldiers were
often labelled as “prostitutes”, or else were accused of
“betraying the homeland.” A large proportion of these liaisons
occurred during the very early stages of occupation, with many women either
eloping with their respective soldiers or bearing their children. In 1941
alone, it was recorded that a total of 255 children had been born of British or
Allied soldiers stationed in Iceland. These children were called `astandsbörn’
(or, `children of the situation.’)
Winston Churchill reviewing the US 6th Marine Regiment,
16 August 1941.
AMERICAN GARRISON
As Iceland endured the occupation, the United States of
America had begun to play a more active part of the war. On 10 April 1941, the
USS Niblack had engaged a German U-boat off the coast of Iceland when it
attacked nearby Allied merchant vessels. These would become the first shots the
US Armed Forces would fire during the course of the Second World War. Despite
this further intervention in the ongoing U-boat campaign, the United States
still identified itself as a neutral country. Growing more and more concerned
about the prospect of entering the war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had
begun to devise a plan to further aid the Allied cause. On 28 May 1941, the US
President held a meeting with British Ambassador Lord Halifax to discuss the
possibility of America taking over the responsibility for Iceland. Churchill,
anxious to draw the Americans into the war against the Axis, accepted the offer
without hesitation. Now, all that remained was to ship US troops to Iceland for
“overseas duty” and relieve the British garrison. Before American soldiers
could land, however, the Roosevelt administration required a specific
invitation from the Icelandic government as both nations were presently neutral
at the time. This was received on 1 July 1941, with the 6th Marine Regiment of
California setting sail from Newfoundland, Canada, the next day. Along with a
heavy escort of US battleships and cruisers, the American military detachment
arrived in Reykjavik harbour on 7 July 1941.
After more than a year of British servicemen walking the
streets of Reykjavik, it seemed that, for most of them, their time on the
island had drawn to a close. The British departure was expected to begin
promptly, with only 146th Brigade and assorted support and administrative
forces remaining to represent the UK on the island. While the American garrison
established itself across the country, the vast majority of British forces
begun to gather their equipment for their final departure. For many of the
local population, this only meant the replacement of the Union Jack with the
Stars and Stripes, with very little else changing in the way they conducted
their lives. Although they had not been originally welcomed with open arms,
some of those British soldiers might be missed – especially those who had
married into Icelandic families. For them, this meant saying goodbye to loved
ones who would eventually go on to fight in mainland Europe – uncertain of
when, or if, they would ever return.
ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR
Due to delays caused by American logistical problems and
supply difficulties, the British 70th Brigade would remain in Iceland until
December 1941. Meanwhile, the majority of the detachment stayed until April of
the following year when 147th Brigade and HQ elements of 49th division were
both withdrawn. Now a belligerent in the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor,
the United States were wholeheartedly prepared and equipped to take on full
military responsibility for Iceland for the remaining duration of the war. By
the summer of 1943, the last British Army troops were gone; leaving only small
detachments of the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force present on the island,
alongside ever-growing numbers of American servicemen. Although their influence
was minimal, Britain continued to keep Royal Navy units stationed in Iceland
right up until the last year of the war. Meanwhile, the Royal Air Force
detachment remained in place until March 1947 – despite initial agreements to
remove any remaining occupation forces from the country at the end of the war.
With their eventual return to the UK, the British occupation of Iceland was
officially over, although since the initial cold reception it was true to say
that the stance of the Icelanders to their occupiers had thawed somewhat across
those seven years.
There can be little doubt that occupation and the denial of
Iceland as an Axis base was important in the Allied conduct of hostilities.
However, Operation Fork, important as it was, is a relatively forgotten and
overlooked chapter of the Second World War.
